ABSTRACT This article is the second in a line of research entitled "Instruments for territorial management", which seeks to analyse the use and valuation, by municipalities, of instruments such as the Municipal Master Plan (MP), the Educational Charter (EC), the Municipal Civil Protection Plans and also the identification of existing participation instruments in the different municipalities. In the present case, we seek to know practices and perceptions about the Educational Charter through the analysis of 44 Educational Charters and by conducting interviews with municipal representatives about this instrument for territorial management. The data collected indicate that, despite the explanation about the importance of this document, it is, in many municipalities, completely out of date and, probably, of no use. There seems to be, currently, a perspective that it should contemplate other educational dynamics than those of formal education and that it is essential to contemplate its connection to other territorial management instruments in the sense of an effective implementation of municipal educational policies considering an integrated territorial vision.

RESUMO O presente artigo enquadra-se numa linha de investigação intitulada “Instrumentos de gestão do território” na qual se procura analisar a utilização e valoração, pelos municípios, de instrumentos como o Plano Diretor Municipal (PDM), a Carta Educativa (CE), os Planos Municipais de Proteção Civil e, ainda, a identificação dos instrumentos de participação existentes nos diferentes municípios. No caso presente, procuramos conhecer práticas e perceções sobre as Cartas Educativas através da análise de 44 Cartas Educativas e da realização de entrevistas a responsáveis municipais sobre este instrumento de gestão do território. Os dados recolhidos apontam no sentido de que apesar da explicitação sobre a importância deste documento o mesmo se apresenta, em muitos municípios, completamente desatualizado e, provavelmente, sem qualquer utilidade. Parece haver, atualmente, uma perspetiva de que a mesma deve contemplar outras dinâmicas educativas que não exclusivamente as da educação formal e ser fundamental contemplar a sua ligação a outros instrumentos de gestão do território no sentido de uma efetiva implementação de políticas educativas municipais tendo em conta uma visão territorial integrada.

Abstract Introduction Frontline COVID-19 healthcare workers (FLHCWs) are at a high-risk of suffering occupational stress- and trauma-related mental health problems, including burnout and compassion fatigue (B&CF). Given the time limitations (due to their heavy workloads) and need to minimize face-to-face interventions (in order to avoid contagions), psychological interventions for FHCWs should be as brief and remote as possible. Objective To evaluate the usability and clarity of evidence-based psycho-educational videos to prevent B&CF, to deal with uncooperative, hostile, and anxious patients and relatives, and to use personal protective equipment (PPE), from the perspective of Mexican FLHCWs. Method Based on a convenience sampling by intensity approach, videos were distributed requesting feedback based on specific questions through WhatsApp to FLHCWs. Field notes were used to triangulate the information. Results Content analysis of feedback from a final sample of 24 participants ‒75% women, 42 ± 8.4 years old‒ yielded three general thematic categories and seven subthemes: 1. content evaluation, which included three subthemes: utility, pertinence, and practicality; 2. dissemination and other needs, with two subcategories: willingness to share and receive more videos (other needs); and 3. format aspects, also comprising two subthemes: attractiveness and duration. All participants found the videos content very beneficial, relevant, and applicable to the workplace and even in their everyday personal and family life, and were willing to share them and to receive more videos on other issues, including strategies to manage problems related to isolation. Discussion and conclusion Escalation of this remote preventive intervention to other COVID-19 centers and future similar epidemics is recommended.

Resumen Introducción Los trabajadores de la salud de primera línea (TSPL) ante el COVID-19 presentan alto riesgo de desgaste profesional y fatiga por compasión (DP&FC). Tomando en cuenta sus limitaciones de tiempo y la necesidad de minimizar las intervenciones cara a cara, las intervenciones psicológicas para los TSPL deben ser tan breves y remotas como sea posible. Objetivo Evaluar la utilidad y claridad de videos psicoeducativos basados en evidencia para prevenir DP&FC, el manejo de pacientes y familiares no cooperativos, hostiles o ansiosos, y el uso de equipo de protección personal desde la perspectiva de los TSPL mexicanos. Método Los videos se distribuyeron a los TSPL por medio de WhatsApp, solicitándoles su opinión con base en preguntas específicas. Se utilizaron notas de campo para triangular esta información. Resultados El análisis de contenido de las retroalimentaciones recibidas por una muestra final de 24 participantes ‒75% mujeres, 42 ± 8.4 años‒ arrojó tres categorías temáticas y nueve subtemas: 1. evaluación de contenido, con tres subtemas: utilidad, pertinencia y practicidad, 2. difusión y otras necesidades, con dos subcategorías: disponibilidad tanto a compartir como a recibir más videos (otras necesidades), y 3. aspectos de forma, también con dos subtemas: atractivo y duración. La totalidad consideró los videos muy benéficos, relevantes y aplicables en el trabajo y su vida diaria personal y familiar; y reportó disposición a compartirlos y a recibir más material de este tipo. Discusión y conclusión Se recomienda el escalamiento de esta medida preventiva y remota a otros centros COVID-19 y en futuras epidemias similares.

Abstract Introduction There is a wide range of possible combinations in relation to sex at birth, gender identity, and sexual orientations. Specific medical and psychological treatment needs may also vary depending on these combinations. Objective In order to promote interventions that focus on the perceived needs of those directly involved, the aim of the present case study is to describe the clinical and life experiences of a 43-year old transgender woman with cryptorchidism and examine the interplay between this relative common testicular problem at birth, gender identity, and sexual orientation formation processes from her own perspective. Method An in-depth interview was conducted at a specialized care centre in Mexico City, Mexico. The interview was audio recorded and transcribed for a content analysis. Results The case under analysis was assigned to the male sex and identified herself as a transgender woman and lesbian. Although it is not possible to conclude that her gender identity or sexual orientation is related to her antecedent of cryptorchidism, as she reflected on her related negative experiences, she concluded that her gender identity and sexual orientation trajectories, as well as her life in general, would have been completely different if there were no clinical interventions in her early development. Discussion and conclusion The present case could have been benefited from not receiving early treatment for her cryptorchidism. There is an urgent need for the development of standardized protocols or algorithms for physical and mental health care professionals, which focus on supportive guidance rather than adjustment to parental and medical expectations.

Resumen Este artículo presenta la historia clínica y de vida de una mujer transexual con criptorquidia al nacer. Nuestro objetivo es presentar un estudio de caso en que la identidad transgénero y la criptorquidia, una condición testicular común en niños e identidades trans, podrían cumplir un papel en los procesos de formación de identidad de género. La interacción entre la identidad de género y la orientación sexual también se presenta como entrevistas semiestructuradas destinadas a recopilar datos sobre intervenciones clínicas tempranas según lo informado por la persona. Abogamos por un algoritmo psicológico que abarque la comunicación interprofesional específicamente diseñada para las personas con diferencias de sexo/género, centrándose en la orientación de apoyo en lugar de ajustarse a las expectativas médicas y de los padres.

This paper describes a plan for the attention of addictions from a public health perspective; it defines strengths of this perspective and its limitations to face the special challenges that the problem represents for social policies; adopts a wider perspective that includes the integration of health and social issues in measuring policy results having as a main aim the benefit of the person and of the communities with a perspective of the populations well being. It describes the challenge the country faces as producer, route of traffic and rates of consumption, analyzes briefly the evidence of public policies and makes a series of recommendations.

El artículo presenta una propuesta para la atención del problema de las adicciones desde un enfoque de salud pública, define sus alcances y limitaciones frente a los retos del fenómeno, especialmente para la formulación de políticas; se suma a las propuestas que buscan integrar los temas sociales en la evaluación del resultado de las acciones y que proponen como meta última el bien de la persona y de las comunidades con una perspectiva de bienestar para la población. Describe el reto que enfrenta México en su papel como país productor, de tránsito y de consumo, analiza brevemente la evidencia sobre las políticas públicas y hace una serie de recomendaciones al respecto.

This paper describes a plan for the attention of addictions from a public health perspective; it defines strengths of this perspective and its limitations to face the special challenges that the problem represents for social policies; adopts a wider perspective that includes the integration of health and social issues in measuring policy results having as a main aim the benefit of the person and of the communities with a perspective of the populations well being. It describes the challenge the country faces as producer, route of traffic and rates of consumption, analyzes briefly the evidence of public policies and makes a series of recommendations.

El artículo presenta una propuesta para la atención del problema de las adicciones desde un enfoque de salud pública, define sus alcances y limitaciones frente a los retos del fenómeno, especialmente para la formulación de políticas; se suma a las propuestas que buscan integrar los temas sociales en la evaluación del resultado de las acciones y que proponen como meta última el bien de la persona y de las comunidades con una perspectiva de bienestar para la población. Describe el reto que enfrenta México en su papel como país productor, de tránsito y de consumo, analiza brevemente la evidencia sobre las políticas públicas y hace una serie de recomendaciones al respecto.

The aim of the work reported is the development of an algorithm for designing PI controllers with a didactic approach.This paper proposes a unified approach to guide the student step by step through the process of design and implementation of a controller in this class.Although PID control use in the industry is widespread, the fact is that the process of tuning the gains of these controllers in the industrial environment is empirical in most occasions.This article links naturally to controller design based on a desired time response with pole assignment process, which allows students to design controllers that are easily transferable to industrial control platforms and in particular programmable logic controllers (PLC, for its acronym in English).In applying the algorithm, students can observe how analytical design can succeed in the practical implementation, which would in principle to develop greater confidence in the design deterministic and metacognitive connections between the abstract and the real.

El objetivo del trabajo reportado es el desarrollo de un algoritmo para el diseño de controladores PI con un enfoque didáctico. El presente trabajo propone un enfoque unificado que guíe al estudiante paso a paso durante el proceso de diseño e implementación de un controlador de esta clase. Si bien, el uso del control PID en la industria está ampliamente extendido, lo cierto es que el proceso de sintonización de las ganancias de este tipo de controladores en el entorno industrial es empírico en la mayoría de las ocasiones. Este artículo vincula de forma natural al diseño del controlador basado en una respuesta temporal deseada con el proceso de asignación de polos, lo cual permite al estudiante diseñar controladores que son fácilmente trasladables a plataformas industriales de control y en lo particular a controladores lógicos programables (PLC, por sus siglas en inglés). Al aplicar el algoritmo, los estudiantes podrán constatar como un diseño analítico puede tener éxito en la implementación práctica, lo cual permitiría en principio desarrollar mayor confianza en el diseño determinístico y realizar conexiones metacognitivas entre lo abstracto y lo real.

The consumption of substances with addictive potential is a relevant health problem. In Mexico, the abuse is spreading and the use of services is unfrequent. To extend the offer and accessibility to treatment means to increase the coverage and to guarantee that efficient and effective models are used to treat the patients. The aim of the paper was to learn what has been investigated in this respect; a systematic review of the studies was undertaken to evaluate the treatment research through clinical trials. Methods A review of the published literature from 1980 to 2010 in databases and specialized documentation centers was undertaken. Reports of clinical trials to evaluate interventions for the consumption of alcohol, tobacco and drugs were included. The criteria proposed by CONSORT were used as indicators. Results Two hundred and twenty publications were located on treatment in Mexico, of which only 26 (11.8 %) corresponded to clinical trials to evaluate the impact of different interventions. The most used type of treatment was the cognitive-behavioral brief one, followed by its combination with therapy of replacement, pharmacological therapy and individual psychotherapy or group therapy. Trials also included evaluation of motivational brief therapy, the program «La familia enseñante» (teaching family) and psychotherapy, as well as the therapy centered on solutions. Discussion Most of the clinical trials localized do not comply with the criteria or do it partially. Additionally they have short scopes due to the limited size of the samples. The results reveal that the reports published of investigations are very scanty to evaluate programs of treatment. There is a need to implement programs of treatment directed to specific populations and to the use of different types of drugs, and to evaluate the interventions.

El consumo de sustancias con potencial adictivo es un problema relevante de salud. En México el abuso se está extendiendo y el uso de servicios es poco frecuente. Ampliar la oferta y la accesibilidad al tratamiento significa aumentar la cobertura y garantizar que se apliquen modelos eficaces y efectivos. Con el propósito de conocer qué es lo que se ha investigado en este sentido, se desarrolló una revisión sistemática de los estudios realizados para evaluar los programas de tratamiento. Método Se realizó una revisión de la bibliografía publicada de 1980 a 2010 en bases de datos y centros de documentación especializados. Se incluyeron reportes de estudios para evaluar intervenciones y tratamientos para el consumo de alcohol, tabaco y drogas. Se utilizaron como indicadores los criterios propuestos por Moher et al., del CONSORT. Resultados Se localizaron 220 publicaciones sobre tratamiento en México, de las cuales solo 26 (11.8%) correspondieron a ensayos clínicos para evaluar el impacto de diferentes intervenciones. El tipo de tratamiento más utilizado fue el cognitivo-conductual breve, seguido por su combinación con terapia de reemplazo, terapia farmacológica y psicoterapia. También se evaluó la terapia breve motivacional, el programa de «La familia enseñante» y la terapia centrada en soluciones. Discusión y conclusiones Al analizar las publicaciones se encontró que la mayoría no cumple con los criterios de los ensayos clínicos aleatorizados o lo hace parcialmente. Adicionalmente tienen cortos alcances debido al reducido tamaño de las muestras. Los resultados revelan que aún son muy escasos los reportes publicados de investigaciones para evaluar programas de tratamiento. Se enfatiza la necesidad de implementar programas dirigidos a poblaciones específicas y acordes a cada tipo de droga, así como la relevancia de generar investigación científica aplicada a la evaluación de las intervenciones.

Introduction In Mexico, alcohol abuse involves overhead costs in terms of premature mortality caused by their related health problems. It is estimated that by itself it implies 9% of the total burden of disease in the country. Although effective interventions exist to treat this problem, national public policies are not integrated and in many occasions its real application is questioned. Cost-effectiveness studies are tools that permit to develop and to implement health public policies because they imply a rigorous economic evaluation and comparison of those in order to determine which obtains better balance between effectiveness and financial viability. Thus, the aim of the present study was to determine the cost-effectiveness of interventions to prevent and to control alcohol abuse in Mexico, based on the proposed methodology by the World Health Organization. It will permit to generate national public policies with local evidence and to carry out evaluations of their impact, as well as international comparisons. Method The World Health Organization methodology named WHO-CHOICE (CHOosing the Interventions that are Cost-Effective) was developed to evaluate and to select the most cost-effective interventions for the prevention or treatment of health problems. It is considered a generalized cost-effective analysis; therefore direct or tangible costs are particularly analyzed (vs. indirect or intangible costs). Procedure First, WHO-CHOICE analysis requires information from different sources about both the illness or problem and the preventive or therapeutic interventions to evaluate. Then, information is processed by special software. As annual standard discount of 3% is done to obtain and to compare the present supplies values; and age of individuals is praised, giving more weight to the young phases. Finally, the results are presented in terms of intervention cost-effectiveness to reduce the burden of disease, defined in terms of disability adjusted life years or DALYs. Interventions The following interventions were evaluated: 1. Current Setting: Taxes and random tests for the detection of alcoholic breath (breathalyzer); 2. Increment of 25% to taxes of products with harmful degree of alcohol; 3. Increment of 50% to taxes of products with harmful degree of alcohol; 4. Reduction of availability of products with harmful degree of alcohol; 5. Regulation of the associated publicity; 6. Brief preventive-persuasiveness intervention in the first level of attention; and 7. Random Tests for detection of alcoholic breath (breathalyzer). Results The independent measure with greater cost-effectiveness to avoid DALYs due to alcohol abuse was the increment of taxes, which is better when it reaches 50%. All increment of taxes avoids (with or without discount and adjustment by age) more than 1 50 000 DALYs per year. The increment of 50% surpasses even 300 000 DALYs per year (without adjustment neither discount). In contrast, none of the other interventions (with adjustment and discount) reaches 50 000 DALYs per year. Besides, the increments of taxes are always more economic than the interventions remainder. The extreme comparison of DALY avoided per year costs is among 50% taxes increment, which requires an investment of 567 Mexican pesos, and the brief intervention in the first level of attention, that implies an expense of 14,342 Mexican pesos. After taxes increment, effective independent interventions to reduce DALYs in Mexico include, in this order: reduction of the offering, integral prohibition of alcohol consumption publicity, brief intervention in the first level of attention, and the random test of alcoholic breath. Finally, the best integral strategy was a combination of the following measures: increment of taxes, greater proportion of people attended with brief interventions, control of publicity, and reduction of availability. Discussion In Mexico, as in many countries of the world, the increase of taxes was the most cost-effective intervention to reduce burden caused from abuse alcohol. This kind of interventions should consider the possible differential impacts according to the socioeconomical status of individuals or groups. Another related problem could be an increment of informal market. Therefore, it is necessary to complement the intervention with strategies directed at reducing the volume of alcoholic beverages that do not pay taxes. All other interventions (not taxes increment) were less cost-effective probably because they have considerably higher costs and smaller impact due their dispensation is eventual. Results of this exercise can have a positive impact among Mexican public policies on the field if the relevance of integral strategies is recognized, with political support, and having achieved a consensus of the population on the advantages of its orchestration.

Introducción Los análisis de costo-efectividad se sugieren como una herramienta esencial para gestionar e implementar políticas públicas en salud, pues permiten compararlas a fin de conocer cuál es la que obtiene mejor balance entre efectividad y viabilidad financiera. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue determinar el costo-efectividad de las intervenciones para prevenir y controlar el abuso de alcohol en México. Método Se utilizó la metodología WHO-CHOICE de la Organización Mundial de la Salud: un análisis de costo-efectividad generalizado (vs. particular) que toma en cuenta prácticamente los costos directos o tangibles (vs. los intangibles). El procedimiento implica la obtención de información de diversas fuentes, tanto de la enfermedad o problema en cuestión como de las intervenciones preventivas o terapéuticas a evaluar. Esta información se carga entonces para su análisis en un software o programa ad hoc. Se hace un descuento estándar de 3% anual para obtener y comparar el valor presente de los insumos, y se pondera la edad de los individuos, dando más peso a las etapas jóvenes. Finalmente, los resultados se plantean en términos de costo-efectividad de las intervenciones para reducir la carga de la enfermedad, definida en años vividos con discapacidad o disfunción (DALYs, por sus siglas en inglés: disability adjusted life-years). Las intervenciones que se evaluaron son: 1. Escenario actual: Impuestos al consumo de productos con grado nocivo de alcohol y pruebas aleatorias a automovilistas para detección de aliento alcohólico (alcoholímetro); 2. Incremento de 25% en los impuestos al consumo de productos con grado nocivo de alcohol; 3. Incremento de 50% en los impuestos al consumo de productos con grado nocivo de alcohol; 4. Reducción de la disponibilidad de productos con grado nocivo de alcohol (incrementar edad permitida del cliente, horario de venta, densidad de puntos de venta y corresponsabilidad del expendedor); 5. Regulación de la publicidad asociada al consumo de productos con grado nocivo de alcohol; 6. Intervención preventi-va-persuasiva breve en el primer nivel de atención; 7. Pruebas aleatorias a automovilistas para detección de aliento alcohólico. Resultados La medida independiente con mayor costo-efectividad para evitar DALYs debidos al abuso de alcohol fue el incremento de impuestos, más aún cuando llega a 50%. Todos los incrementos de impuestos evitan por sí solos (con o sin descuento y ajuste por edad) más de 150 000 DALYs por año. El incremento de 50% supera incluso los 300 000 (sin ajuste ni descuento). En cambio, ninguna de las otras intervenciones (con ajuste y descuento) llega a los 50 000. Además, los incrementos de impuestos son siempre más económicos que el resto de las intervenciones. La comparación extrema del costo por DALY evitado al año es entre el incremento de impuestos a 50%, que requiere una inversión de 567 pesos, y el consejo breve en el primer nivel de atención, que implica un gasto de hasta 14,342 pesos. Finalmente, la mejor estrategia integral fue la combinación de las siguientes medidas: incremento de impuestos, mayor proporción de personas atendidas con intervenciones breves, control de la publicidad y reducción de la disponibilidad de alcohol. Discusión Aunque el aumento de impuestos resultó, como en muchos países del mundo, la intervención aislada más costo-efectiva para reducir la carga que ocasiona el alcohol, deben tomarse en cuenta sus posibles impactos diferenciales en tanto el poder adquisitivo de los individuos o grupos y sobre el crecimiento del mercado de alcohol informal. Esto último sugiere la necesidad de acompañarle con estrategias dirigidas a reducir el volumen de bebidas alcohólicas que no pagan impuestos. El resto de las intervenciones fueron menos efectivas en tanto que tienen un impacto considerablemente menor cuando se dispensan de forma aislada, debido principalmente a sus altos costos.

Introduction Depression is a public health problem that carries substantial costs for the individual and the society. In order to establish evidence-based priorities for resource allocation in mental health care, it is necessary to integrate the costs and effectiveness of interventions and specify the essential packages for their treatment. The following are pioneering studies of cost-effectiveness for the treatment of depression: 1. compared psychopharmacology options (fluoxetine, imipramine and desipramine) to found no difference between drugs in terms of clinical efficacy, effect on quality of life and costs, and 2. evaluated cost-effectiveness of collaborative program of stepped care in primary care of persistent depression, to demonstrate a substantial increase in the effectiveness and additional moderate cost increase in comparison with usual treatment. Recently, the World Health Organization convened the National Institute of Psychiatry Ramón de la Fuente, as a collaborating center, to participate in the <<Selecting interventions that are cost-effective>> labeled WHO-CHOICE (CHOosing interventions that are Cost-Effective). This paper presents the findings of the evaluation of cost-effectiveness of different clinical interventions for the treatment of depression in Mexico, considering its implementation in primary care services. Method The cost-effectiveness unit of measure gathered by WHO (and used in this work) are the years of healthy life lost because of disease, named DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Years). DALYs result from the sum of years lost by premature mortality over the years that are lost through living in disability status. The advantages of using a measure of health at the population level as lost DALYs is that it allows comparing interventions for different diseases and addresses a relevant question from the avoidable burden health policy standpoint. Interventions evaluated included: 1. tricyclic antidepressants, 2. new antidepressants (SSRIs), 3. brief psychotherapy, 4. trycliclic antidepressants + brief psychotherapy, 5. new antidepressants + brief psychotherapy, 6. tricyclic antidepressants + brief psychotherapy + proactive case management, and 7. new antidepressants + brief psychotherapy + proactive case management. DALYs avoided as a result of each intervention or combination were calculated to determine its effectiveness. Both patients and program costs, a 3% discount by the process of converting future values to present ones, as well as an age adjustment giving less weight to year lived by the young were included. Finally, the cost of averted DALYs for each intervention was estimated to determine their cost effectiveness. Results The combined strategies of proactive case management with psychotherapy plus antidepressants can be considered as the most effective one. With the combination with tricyclic antidepressants, the number of DALYs averted was 207,1 71, and with SSRI of 21 7,568, corresponding to more than double of DALYs when tricyclic anti-depressants are used alone and almost double when using only SSRIs. The most expensive intervention was the combination of SSRIs with brief psychotherapy, with a total of $12,256 million pesos (972 million dollars), the least expensive treatment were tricyclic antidepressants, which involved $4,523 million pesos (359 million dollars). Over 99% of the costs were from patient medications, and less than 1% from program and training costs. It is clear that the greatest cost is for added proactive case management. The use of SSRI was the most cost-effective treatment (no combination) for the management of depression in Mexican primary care. The most cost-effective combination was tryciclic antidepressants plus brief psychotherapy plus proactive case management. Conclusions Although the are some studies on health economics in Mexico, most are directed to consider costs, and few ones have evaluated the cost-effectiveness relationship of diagnostic and therapeutic interventions, lees son in the mental health field. Antecedents of the present study in Mexico included a study that observed that psychiatric patients require more medical consultations, laboratory analysis, hospitalization days, surgeries and medication, in contrast with patients that never needed mental attention. Nevertheless, investigations about cost-effectiveness relationship are rare. Just one study evaluates the costs of positive changes in psychopathology with antipsychotic medication for the treatment of schizophrenic patients. In this direction, the present work is the first effort to evaluate cost-effectiveness of different communitarian interventions to treat depression in Mexico. According with our findings, also in México, the interventions available to treat depression in primary care level prevent a substantial number of DALYs: almost six times when SSRIs plus brief psychotherapy plus proactive case management are administered. The specific effect of proactive case management is preventing relapses and increasing the time free of disease, which results in greater benefit to the patient, his family and the society. Thus, interventions are cost-effective despite the proactive case management significantly increases the cost of care to these patients. In conclusion, the inclusion of psychosocial treatments is advantageous from a cost-effectiveness standpoint. Averted DALYs with these interventions are more <<economic>>. As observed in previous studies, a modest investment in improving depression produces greater gains in resource-limited environments. In Mexico, there is evidence that such interventions in primary care are effective when they are given by medical staff with a brief training, making them a promising tool for a cost-effective and evidence-based public policy.

Introducción La depresión es un problema de salud pública que conlleva costos importantes para el individuo y la sociedad. Con la finalidad de establecer prioridades basadas en evidencias para la asignación de recursos en el cuidado de la salud mental, es necesario integrar los costos y la efectividad de las intervenciones y especificar los paquetes esenciales para su tratamiento. En esta dirección, la Organización Mundial de la Salud convocó al Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, como centro colaborador, a participar en el proyecto <<Seleccionando intervenciones que son costo-efectivas>> (WHO-CHOICE, por sus siglas en inglés: CHOosing Interventions that are Cost-Effective). El presente texto presenta los hallazgos del estudio de relación costo-efectividad de diferentes intervenciones clínicas para el tratamiento de la depresión en México, considerando su implantación en los servicios de atención primaria a la salud. Método La unidad de medición de costo-efectividad seleccionada por la OMS (y utilizada en este trabajo) son los Años de vida ajustados por discapacidad a causa de alguna enfermedad (AVISA perdidos, en inglés DALYs, Disability Adjusted Life Years), que resultan de la suma de los años que se pierden por mortalidad prematura más los años que se pierden por vivir en una situación de discapacidad. Las intervenciones evaluadas fueron: 1. antidepresivos tricíclicos; 2. antidepresivos nuevos (ISRS); 3. psicoterapia breve; 4. antidepresivos tricíclicos + psicoterapia breve; 5. antidepresivos nuevos + psicoterapia breve; 6. antidepresivos tricíclicos + psicoterapia breve + manejo proactivo de caso; y 7. antidepresivos nuevos + psicoterapia breve + manejo proactivo de caso. Para determinar su efectividad, se calcularon los AVISAs perdidos que se evitan como resultado de cada intervención. Se incluyeron los costos del paciente y los del programa, un descuento de 3% por el proceso de convertir valores futuros a presentes, así como un ajuste por edad, otorgando menos peso a los años vividos por los jóvenes. Finalmente, para determinar la relación costo-efectividad, se calculó el costo por cada AVISA evitado con cada intervención. Resultados Las estrategias combinadas de manejo proactivo de caso con psicoterapia breve más antidepresivos pueden considerarse como las más eficaces. Con la combinación con antidepresivos tricíclicos, el número de AVISAs evitados fue de 207171, y con la de ISRS fue de 217568, lo que corresponde a más del doble de AVISAs cuando se emplean únicamente antidepresivos tricíclicos, y casi al doble cuando se emplean únicamente ISRS. La intervención más costosa fue la combinación de ISRS con psicoterapia breve, con un monto total de $12,256 millones de pesos (972 millones de dólares), y la menos costosa fue el tratamiento con antidepresivos tricíclicos, que implicó $4,523 millones de pesos (359 millones de dólares). De los costos, más de 99% correspondieron a medicamentos, y menos de 1% a los costos del programa y del entrenamiento. Es evidente que el mayor costo corresponde a las intervenciones en que se agrega el manejo proactivo de caso. La intervención que tuvo la mejor relación costo-efectividad, considerando un solo tratamiento, fue el uso de ISRS. La combinación más costo-efectiva fue la de antidepresivos tricíclicos con psicoterapia breve y manejo proactivo de caso. Conclusiones Es claro que las intervenciones disponibles para el tratamiento de la depresión evitan un número considerable de AVISAs. Éste es casi seis veces mayor cuando se administran ISRS + psicoterapia + manejo proactivo de caso, lo que permite que las intervenciones resulten costo-efectivas a pesar de que el manejo proactivo de caso aumenta considerablemente los costos de atención a estos pacientes. El efecto específico del manejo proactivo de caso es que evita las recaídas y aumenta el tiempo libre de enfermedad, lo que se traduce en mayor beneficio para el paciente, su familia y la sociedad en general.

A presente investigação analisou as relações entre a prática desportiva de estudantes universitários e o modo como estes se percepcionavam a si próprios e às suas vidas. Participaram nesta investigação 2284 estudantes de ambos os sexos, com idades entre os 18 e os 30 anos (M = 21,87 ±2,37), que preencheram um questionário sobre a sua prática desportiva, bem como versões portuguesas do Physical Self-Perception Profile (Fox & Corbin, 1989), da Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999), da Satisfaction With Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) e da Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Em geral, a análise dos resultados revelou que os indivíduos que possuíam mais confiança física e que avaliavam a sua vida mais positivamente praticavam desporto mais regularmente; porém, verificou-se igualmente que quem se percebia menos forte fisicamente e tinha uma auto-estima mais baixa também praticava desporto mais regularmente do que os pares.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between university students' sport practice and the way they perceived themselves and their lives. Participated in this investigation 2284 male and female students, with ages between 18 and 30 years (M = 21.87 ±2.37), who filled out a questionnaire to assess their levels of sport practice, as well the Portuguese versions of the Physical Self-Perception Profile (Fox & Corbin, 1989), the Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999), the Satisfaction With Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Overall, the analysis of the results showed that students who were more physically confident and evaluated their lives more positively did sport more regularly; however, results also showed that students who reported lower levels of physical strength and self-esteem practiced sport more regularly than their peers.

Embora as vantagens associadas à prática desportiva por pessoas de todas as idades sejam hoje perfeitamente evidentes, vários estudos realizados com populações universitárias têm destacado o seu elevado sedentarismo, razão pela qual se justifica investigar as determinantes da sua actividade desportiva. Reconhecendo a importância assumida neste domínio pelas dimensões social, cognitiva e afectiva, este estudo procurou analisar a prática desportiva de estudantes universitários, relacionando-a com variáveis intrapessoais (e.g., sexo, idade) e interpessoais (e.g., hábitos desportivos de familiares e amigos). Participaram 2284 estudantes dos dois sexos, com idades entre os 18 e os 30 anos (M=21.87±2.37), que preencheram um questionário sobre a sua prática desportiva e a dos seus familiares e amigos. A análise dos resultados evidenciou que os estudantes: i) preferiam actividades de fitness, natação e futebol, bem como actividades menos tradicionais (e.g., capoeira); ii) praticavam maioritariamente desporto recreativo, ao longo de todo o ano, em associações/ academias/ ginásios; iii) os homens eram mais activos; iv) maioritariamente preferiam praticar desporto acompanhados, o que convergia com as correlações positivas encontradas entre a regularidade da sua prática e a dos seus amigos e familiares. Daqui resulta, portanto, a importância de adequar a oferta desportiva às preferências dos estudantes, não só em termos de modalidades e espaços, mas também considerando o papel dos outros significativos.

Despite the clear benefits associated to sport practice to people of all ages, some studies with university students have shown high prevalence of sedentary habits, reason why it is important to investigate the determinants of their sport participation. Considering the importance in this domain of social, cognitive and affective dimensions, this study analysed sport practice of university students in relation with intrapersonal (e.g., sex, age) and interpersonal (e.g. relatives and friends sport habits) variables. Participated in this investigation 2284 male and female students, aged between 18 and 30 years (M=21.87±2.37), who filled out a questionnaire to assess their levels of sport practice, as well as their relatives and friends sport habits. Overall, results showed the students: i) preferred to practice fitness, swimming and soccer, as well as traditional activities (e.g., capoeira); ii) preferred to practice sport recreationally, all year long, in associations/ academies/ gymnasia; iii) men were more active; iv) preferred to practice sport in group, which is consistent with the positive correlations found between the students’ regular sport practice and their relatives’ and friends’ sport habits. Therefore, these results suggest the importance of matching the sport offer to the preferences of students, not only in relation to activities and places, but also considering the role of significant others.